LYNX - a Special Interest Network on Ecological Networks
LYNX - a Special Interest Network on Ecological Networks
CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF EUROPEAN WILDLIFE AND NATURAL HABITATS
Standing Committee
16th meeting
Strasbourg, 2-6 December 1996
Secretariat Memorandum
established by the
Directorate of Environment
and Local Authorities
This short document explains how the EMERALD network was born, its reach and development, its relation with NATURA 2000 and other projects.
1. Introduction
In June 1989 the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention held an extraordinary
meeting exclusively devoted to habitat conservation within the Convention. At the meeting
the Committee adopted an interpretative resolution (Resolution No. 1 (1989) on the provisions
relating to the conservation of habitats) and three operative recommendations
(Recommendations Nos. 14, 15 and 16 (1989)) aimed at the development of a network of areas
under the Convention. A further recommendation (Recommendation No. 25 (1991) on the
conservation of natural areas outside protected areas proper) was adopted at a later meeting
of the Committee.
In Recommendation No. 16 (1989) "on Areas of Special Conservation Interest" (ASCIs), the
Standing Committee recommended Parties to "take steps to designate Areas of Special Conservation
Interest to ensure that the necessary and appropriate conservation measures are taken for each area
situated within their territory or under their responsibility where that area fits one or several of the
following conditions..." (a list of conditions followed).
The Committee had wished that all these recommendations on habitat conservation be
rapidly implemented by Contracting Parties but two major events delayed their
implementation. The first was the fundamental change in the political map of Europe that
followed the fall of the Berlin wall in October 1989. The Bern Convention had to change its
priorities from the building of a network or areas to the extension of the Convention to the new
democracies of Central and Eastern Europe. The second was the preparation, at the European
Community, of a legal instrument aimed at implementing the Bern Convention within the
Community. (As any other Contracting Party to the Convention, the European Community
had the obligation to take "the appropriate and necessary legislative and administrative measures" to
implement the Convention.) The legal instrument was finalised in May 1992 and was called
the "Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora". Happily,
that text did not simply take the text of the Bern Convention, but went much further in
developing the obligations on habitat protection (so much that it is now best known as the
"Habitats Directive"). The Habitats Directive created "a coherent European ecological network of
special areas of conservation ... to be set up under the title of NATURA 2000".
In order to assure coherence between the network of Areas of Special Conservation
Interest (ASCIs) to be designated under the Bern Convention and the network of Special Areas
of Conservation (SACs) designated under the Habitats Directive, the Standing Committee to
the Convention thought preferable to wait for the establishment of the proper mechanism by
the Directive. In January 1996, a sufficient number of States of Central and Eastern Europe had
become Parties to the Convention and were requesting the development of the network of
ASCIs. The Standing Committee, realising this wish and noting that the Habitats Directive was
already sufficiently advanced in its work to build NATURA 2000, decided to adopt its
Resolution No. 3 (1996), in which it resolved to "set up a network (EMERALD Network) which
would include the Areas of Special Conservation Interest designated following its Recommendation
No. 16"; it furthermore "encouraged Contracting Parties and observer states to designate Areas of
Special Conservation Interest and to notify them to the Secretariat". Resolution No. 3 (1996) was, in
a sense, a second act of birth of the network, after its first creation in 1989. More precisely it
was an act of baptism as the network had not been given a name in 1989 and it had proved
rather awkward to promote a network under the name of "network to develop
Recommendation No. 16 (1989) of the Standing Committee of the Convention on areas of
special conservation interest". Short names have advantages.
2. Legal support of the EMERALD Network
The Bern Convention does not deal exclusively with the protection of species. Articles 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 9 of the Convention deal with the protection of natural habitats, in particular
Relevant texts of the Convention and the Standing Committee concerning protection
of natural habitats are appended to this document.
The EMERALD Network was created by virtue of Recommendation No. 16 (1989) and
Resolution No. 3 (1996) and thus benefits from the "soft law" approach characteristic of
recommendations. Nevertheless, the obligations to protect natural habitats are not "soft law"
but rather strict obligations clearly marked in the Convention, and forming part of international
law. The Standing Committee recommended Contracting Parties to implement their
obligations regarding natural habitats through the taking of a number of measures, among
which the designation of the Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs) that form the
EMERALD Network. Obviously obligations under the Bern Convention can only be requested
of Contracting Parties. Other European states were "invited" to participate in the exercise.
The Standing Committee examined the possibility of amending the Convention (or
establishing a protocol) to integrate the EMERALD Network into the text of the Convention
- thus reinforcing its legal reach - but no decision in that sense had been taken by January 1997.
3. Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs)
What are Areas of Special Conservation Interest?
Recommendation No. 16 defines Areas of Special Conservation Interest as those
designated by states where that area fits one or several of the following conditions:
The conditions above point clearly towards areas of a great ecological value for both the
threatened and endemic species listed in the Appendices of the Bern Convention and for the
endangered habitat types which are to be identified by the Standing Committee as "requiring
specific conservation measures".
The EMERALD Network would thus not be simply a box into which any type of
protected area can be put, or a mere collection of areas designated under other schemes. Its
coherence - much like that of NATURA 2000 - comes from the limited criteria for choice: they
have to be important and contribute substantially (the adjective is important!) to the objectives
of the Convention.
Which States may designate ASCIs?
Resolution No. 3 (1996) encourages "Contracting Parties and observer states to designate
ASCIs" and to notify them to the Secretariat.
The following 31 European states are Contracting Parties to the Convention (in
November 1996):
and the following 14 European states have the status of observer at the meetings of the Standing Committee:
This raises to 45 the number of states which may participate in the EMERALD Network.
The participation of states which are not yet Contracting Parties is not only possible, but
highly desirable. Resolution No. 3 (1996) invites "European states which are observer states in the
Standing Committee of the Bern Convention to participate in the network and designate ASCIs".
The participation of non-European (Parties or observers) in the EMERALD Network is
unclear at present. While Recommendation No. 14 (1989) does not exclude such participation,
Resolution No. 3 (1996) is clearly addressed to European states.
In respect to European Union states, they are recommended (Recommendation No. 14
(1989), like other states, to designate ASCIs. The same might apply for the European
Community as Contracting Party, as the Standing Committee recommended Parties to take
steps to designate ASCIs "to ensure that necessary and appropriate measures of conservation are taken
for each area situated within their territory or under their responsibility ...". In any circumstance, it
is clear that Contracting Parties which are members of the European Union and the European
Community itself may - if they so wish - coordinate their action in respect to the designation
of ASCIs. The activities of designation of SPAs within the Habitats Directive would be more
than enough to fulfil the implementation of Recommendation No. 16 and - if the States
concerned so wish and decide - it may be their contribution to the EMERALD Network. Indeed
no other action would be expected from them, the NATURA 2000 network having identical
objectives (and a more solid legal basis) to those of the EMERALD Network. In this respect,
the full and thorough implementation of the Habitats Directive is contemplated as a necessary
and fundamental step into the achievement of the common goals it shares with the Bern
Convention, both concerning the protection of natural habitats and the conservation of wild
flora and fauna.
What are the duties of states concerning the status and management of ASCIs?
Once ASCIs have been designated by the states, that is not the end of the EMERALD
Network, but rather the start, as states are recommended to take a number of steps (by
legislation or otherwise, to ensure that ASCIs are properly managed. They are asked in
Recommendation No. 16 (1989) to "ensure, wherever possible that":
Furthermore, states are recommended to take steps, as appropriate, in respect of ASCIs to:
It is obvious from the paragraphs above that states are invited to pay much conservation
attention to ASCIs. There is, however, no precise recommendation to give legal protection to
ASCIs, the Standing Committee having preferred to keep a supple wording and having
recommended that the areas "be subject to the appropriate regime". As usual the Standing
Committee was more interested by the achievement of conservation results than by a particular
"area protection" procedure. Some systems may work very well without strong legal obligations
attached. In any case the Standing Committee asked states to look into the matter of the
protection of ASCIs and the last point of Recommendation No. 16 reads as follows:
The Standing Committee recommends that Contracting Parties:
Building the EMERALD Network is designed to be a dynamic process which will need
regular updates of the information contained and the way the states comply with the
recommendation. Point 2 of Recommendation No. 16 invites states to "review regularly or
continually in a systematic fashion their performance in the implementation of [the designation of
ASCIs]."
How are ASCIs designated?
Resolution No. 3 (1996) and Recommendation No. 16 (1989) are not very precise on that
point. They encourage Contracting Parties and observer states "to designate ASCIs and to notify
them to the Secretariat". Thus the responsibility for designating ASCIs lies with the government
of the states concerned. As for the technical details, it is worth noting that Resolution No. 3
created "a group of experts to carry out the necessary activities related to the building up of the
network". This group met for the first time in November 1996 and did not discuss this issue in
detail but it was stressed that the designation process would be done in such a way that it
would be compatible with that of the NATURA 2000 network. A data sheet that needs to be
filled in by the states is to be prepared early in 1997. The possibility of being able to fill in the
forms electronically is being explored so that, for instance, data gathered for the CORINE-biotopes programme may be used.
Designation of ASCIs will start in 1997, after the preparation of data sheets. The states
are expected to notify the Secretariat the ASCIs they designate which will be validated by the
Secretariat and incorporated in the EMERALD Network.
Although some decisions in this respect need yet to be taken, it is likely that for
Contracting Parties of the Convention which are also member states of the European
Community the procedure will be different. In order to assure harmonisation and
compatibility with the NATURA 2000 network, they need only to notify which areas have been
effectively included in the NATURA 2000 network, after all the necessary verification process
agreed in the Habitats Directive, and whether they wish these areas to become part of the
EMERALD Network. This procedure is designed to assure full compatibility and coherence
of both networks.
4. The work ahead
The Standing Committee thought that, for the designation of ASCIs and for the
protection of natural habitat, it was necessary to reinforce the work that Contracting Parties
were carrying out in habitat protection. Thus, it decided to ask Parties (in
Recommendation No. 14 (1989)) to:
and for each of these categories to indicate, as far as possible, their sites".
Although the above tasks were addressed to Contracting Parties, the Standing
Committee decided, after 1989, to prepare, for the whole of Europe lists for points a, b, c and
d above.
In December 1996 the Standing Committee adopted Resolution No. 4 identifying
endangered natural habitats requiring specific conservation measures.
As for the other points, work was well advanced to identify species requiring specific
habitat conservation measures (including the migratory species mentioned in c. above.
As for d. above (species of which the breeding and/or resting sites require protection),
while all of them can be considered as included in a. above (ie they require specific habitat
conservation measures), the identification of breeding and/or resting sites requiring protection
will be clearly associated with the designation of ASCIs but has not started.
The identification of species requiring specific habitat conservation measures can be a
useful step towards the designation of ASCIs because it may guide choices of sites of particular
relevance for threatened species. Yet the temporary absence of a list of species requiring special
habitat conservation measures should not hinder the designation of ASCIs as these may be
chosen when they "contribute substantially to the survival of threatened species, endemic species or
any species in Appendices I and II of the Convention".
The tasks ahead for the building of the network will be those aimed at facilitating the designation of ASCIs by states, mainly the following:
5. Relations of the EMERALD Network with NATURA 2000
The Bern Convention (1979) and the Habitats Directive (1992) have a complete
coincidence of objectives. Both are international legal instruments aimed at the conservation
of wild flora, fauna and natural habitats. Their main differences come from the territory they
apply to (European Union member states for the Directive and the whole of Europe and part
of Africa for the Convention) and to the fact that the Directive is more explicit on the
obligations concerning conservation of natural habitats.
In any case the Directive is a piece of legislation designed to implement the Bern
Convention in the European Community and, as such, it is fundamentally coherent with the
Convention. As Resolution No. 1 and Recommendations Nos. 14, 15 and 16 were adopted in
1989 and Recommendation No. 25 in 1991, at the time the Directive was being prepared, it is
clear that they also influenced the content of the Directive. For instance, the "species requiring
specific habitat conservation measures" mentioned in Recommendation No. 14 has its equivalent
in Annex II of the Directive ("Animal and plant species of Community interest whose conservation
requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation").
Also the "endangered natural habitats requiring specific habitat conservation measures" of
Recommendation No. 14 became Annex I of the Directive ("Natural habitat types of Community
interest whose conservation requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation). Even the term
"Areas of Special Conservation Interest" (by the way, inspired by the United Kingdom's Sites of
Special Scientific Interest) was taken in the Directive to become finally Special Areas of
Conservation. The resemblance is even more striking in French (Zones d'intérêt spécial pour la
conservation/Zones spéciales de conservation).
The great interest and merit of the Directive has been to convert into precise law the
ideas and recommendations on habitat conservation contained in the Bern Convention,
improving its reach and reenforcing its application in the 15 states of the Union.
It is obvious to any independent observer that most of the implementation of the Bern
Convention will be carried out within the Union by the full implementation of the Directive.
Regarding the networks NATURA 2000 and EMERALD the only logical and feasible
interpretation is that the member states of the European Union will satisfy the habitat
requirements of the Bern Convention mostly through the designation of sites to the
NATURA 2000 network. If the EU member states so decide, the Special Areas of Conservation
of NATURA 2000 will also become Areas of Special Conservation Interest of the EMERALD
Network. This will ensure the coherence of the Network for the whole of Europe. No other
designation will be requested for EU member states.
There is an obvious advantage in this approach, which is that most of the work to be
done in the building of the EMERALD Network will be concentrated in states which are not
members of the European Union. In this way it will be possible to extend to the whole of
Europe a homogeneous network of areas, helping to break down in this sector the barriers that
history, politics and economic reality have imposed on the European continent. This is in line
with the missions, the challenges and the ambitions of the Council of Europe.
Additionally, it may also help some states, candidates to join the European Union, to
do part of the preparatory work necessary to comply in advance with the Habitats Directive.
It seems evident that if a state designates a coherent network of ASCIs within the EMERALD
Network, it will be in a more favourable position to designate its own ASC when it joins the
Union. Such a possibility calls for a coordination of the Council of Europe, serving the Bern
Convention, and the European Commission, responsible for the Directive, to discuss technical
matters derived from the building of both networks.
In a sense the EMERALD Network will take farther than the borders of the European Union the philosophy of the NATURA 2000 network and will materialise in the whole continent the fundamentally coincident objectives of both the Bern Convention and the Habitats Directive regarding conservation of natural habitats. Its success will be that of nature conservation in Europe.
CONVENTION TEXTS ON HABITAT PROTECTION
SUMMARY
Articles 1, 2, 3, 4, 6b and 9 of the Convention
"(...)
Chapter I - General provisions
Article 1
Article 2
The Contracting Parties shall take requisite measures to maintain the population of wild
flora and fauna at, or adapt it to, a level which corresponds in particular to ecological,
scientific and cultural requirements, while taking account of economic and recreational
requirements and the needs of sub-species, varieties or forms at risk locally.
Article 3
Chapter II - Protection of habitats
Article 4
Chapter III - Protection of species
Article 6
Each Contracting Party shall take appropriate and necessary legislative and
administrative measures to ensure the special protection of the wild fauna species
specified in Appendix II. The following will in particular be prohibited for these species:
Article 9
(...)
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and
Natural Habitats, acting under the terms of Article 14 of the convention,
Having regard to the obligations laid down by the convention, particularly in Articles 1, 2,
3, 4, 6.b and 9;
Conscious of the fact that most of these obligations bind Contracting Parties as to the results
to be attained, while leaving them the choice of the means to be used for that purpose;
Recognising, however, that the absence of a common interpretation of certain provisions
of the convention, and certain terms contained therein, may lead to considerable differences in the
legal interpretation of the convention by individual Contracting Parties and may undermine the
effectiveness of the convention;
Desirous to promote agreement, as much as possible, among Contracting Parties as to what
is required to be done in order to implement the convention;
Convinced that a common interpretation of certain of the provisions and terms of the
convention, particularly in Articles 4, 6.b and 9, will facilitate the achievement of the aims of the
convention in a harmonised way by all Contracting Parties,
Resolves that, for the purpose of improving the effectiveness of the convention, the terms
listed hereunder are to be interpreted as follows:
1. For the purpose of the convention:
2. For the purpose of Article 4:
3. For the purpose of Article 6.b:
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife
and Natural Habitats, acting under the terms of Article 14 of the convention,
Considering Articles 3 and 4 of the convention;
Having regard to Resolution No. 1 (1989) on the provisions relating to the conservation
of habitats, and to the decision it has taken to act by virtue of paragraph 2, sub-paragraphs a
and d, and paragraph 3, sub-paragraph a of that resolution,
Recommends that Contracting Parties:
and for each of these categories to indicate, as far as possible, their sites;
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife
and Natural Habitats, acting under the terms of Article 14 of the convention,
Having regard to the provisions of Articles 4 and 9, paragraph 1, of the convention and
to Resolution No. 1 (1989) on the provisions relating to the conservation of habitats;
Conscious of the need not to endanger the survival of habitat types,
Recommends that Contracting Parties make exceptions to Article 4, by virtue of Article 9, paragraph 1, with respect to endangered natural habitat types as identified by the Standing Committee in Resolution No. 1 (1989) only in exceptional circumstances and provided that the exceptions will not be detrimental to the survival of the habitat type concerned.
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife
and Natural Habitats, acting under Article 14 of the convention,
Having regard to Article 4 of the convention and to Resolution No. 1 (1989) on the
provisions relating to the conservation of habitats;
Desirous of establishing common criteria for the identification of areas to be conserved;
Desirous also of ensuring that the conservation and management of such areas have
regard to certain minimum requirements,
Recommends that Contracting Parties:
ON THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL AREAS
OUTSIDE PROTECTED AREAS PROPER
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and
Natural Habitats, acting under Article 14 of the convention,
Having regard to Articles 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the convention and to its Resolution No. 1 (1989);
Conscious that most of the obligations under Articles 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the convention are binding
upon the Contracting Parties as to the results to be attained while allowing them a choice of the
means to be used for that purpose;
Conscious that the establishment of protected areas of the A and B categories defined in
Resolution 73 (30) of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe of 26 October 1973
may prove to be insufficient to comply with the obligations of the convention;
Recognising that measures to conserve natural habitats outside protected areas thus defined
are necessary for the protection of some species;
Recognising, however, that certain forms of action have proved particularly effective in the
countries where they have been adopted and that the experience thus acquired should be
brought to the attention of all Contracting Parties;
Recognising that flora and fauna conservation is possible only in the context of a regional
planning policy conserving their environments and habitats,
Recommends that Contracting Parties:
Appendix
Examples of conservation measures1
I. General measures for promoting ecological management of the environment as a whole
1. Submit all projects, plans, programmes and measures with an impact on the natural and
semi-natural environment to an examination of environmental compatibility with a view to
protecting nature and landscapes and conserving them intact in cases where there is an
overriding general interest in doing so.
2. Take care to use agricultural land and forests in a sustainable way by making maximum
possible use of natural protection capacities and by reducing inputs.
3. Encourage the use of environment friendly technologies when carrying out technical
operations in natural or semi-natural environment, and replace large-scale single operations
by regular maintenance measures which are more evenly distributed in time and space. If it
is impossible to avoid affecting natural or semi-natural environments which are worth
protecting, ensure that mitigation measures are taken to minimise as much as possible the
negative effects of the operations, to restore, or failing this, to replace them by adequate
compensation.
II. Areas of special conservation interest
1. Draw up a detailed inventory of areas of special conservation interest as defined in paragraph 1 of the Standing Committee's Recommendation No. 16 (1989) and ensuring the conservation and management of those areas, when it is not possible or appropriate to include them in protected areas of categories A and B, by taking, in particular, the following measures:
2. Facilitate the acquisition and management of areas of special conservation interest by the
state or other public bodies in particular by taking the following measures:
:
3. Facilitate the acquisition, conservation and management of areas of special conservation
interest by private persons, in particular by taking the following measures:
:
granting subsidies, loans and tax concessions to private nature conservation organisations for the acquisition of land included in such areas;
III. Ecological corridors
Encourage the conservation and, where necessary, the restoration of ecological corridors in particular by taking the following measures:
1. Rights of way of roads, railways and high-voltage lines
Authorising agreements between nature conservation authorities and government or other
public bodies owning or responsible for such areas with a view to maintaining natural plant
cover and preserving the sites of rare or endangered plant species, prohibiting or limiting the
use of phytosanitary products and of fire in those areas, as well as restricting the use of
machinery to the strict minimum necessary necessary for safety reasons.
Taking measures to restore or to compensate for the loss of ecological corridors caused by the
building of new roads and other constructions that prevent animals from migrating or
interchanging. In these cases, the responsible authority has to safeguard such crossing routes,
for example, by building special tunnels for otters, badgers, by building so-called cerviducts
for deer, by closing roads during the spring migrational period for amphibians, or by any other
appropriate measures.
2. Watercourses
Maintaining certain watercourses or parts thereof in their natural state, and where necessary
restoring them, by prohibiting the building of dams, any straightening or canalisation work and
the extraction of materials from their beds, and by maintaining or restoring vegetation along
their banks. Ensuring that dredging operations, when they prove essential, do not harm the
integrity of the aquatic ecosystem or of the banks.
On other watercourses, limiting canalisation and straightening work to whatever is absolutely
essential, providing fish passes across dams, maintaining a minimum flow in low-water
periods as far as possible, limiting extraction of materials from the bed and maintaining
vegetation along the banks.
IV. Habitat types
1. Ensure the conservation of endangered habitat types such as wetlands, heathlands and
dry grasslands by requiring that all projects liable to cause their deterioration or destruction be
subject to the permission (or agreement) of the authority responsible for nature conservation.
2. Subject permission, once it has been granted, to an obligation, where appropriate, to
take suitable compensation measures.
3. Set up a system of management agreements, together with financial incentives, to
provide for the management of certain habitat types, whether or not they are protected.
V. Landscape features
Encourage the conservation of landscape features such as streams, ponds, small woods,
individual trees, hedges and natural grassland, in particular, by taking the following measures:
1. drawing up in each municipality an inventory of landscape features which should be
preserved;
2. taking these features into account in the preparation or revision of land-use plans by
including them in zones enjoying a high level of protection;
3. setting up a system of management agreements for the preservation and, where
appropriate, the management of the landscape features thus protected;
4. for each agricultural production unit, establishing, in agreement with the farmer, a conservation plan comprising:
VI. Ecologically sensitive areas
Set up special legal regimes applicable to certain areas requiring specific measures on account
of their ecological vulnerability and the various kinds of pressure to which they are exposed,
including, in particular, the following measures:
1. Coastlines and adjacent marine areas
2. Mountains
3. Flood plains
4. Forests
VII. Protected landscapes
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and
Natural Habitats, acting under the terms of Article 14 of the convention,
Desirous to pursue the implementation of its Recommendation No. 16 (1989) on areas of special
conservation interest;
Desirous also to contribute as a first step to the implementation of the Pan-European Biological
and Landscape Diversity Strategy, in particular to Theme 1 of the strategy "Establishing the
Pan-European ecological network", as endorsed at the Ministerial Conference "Environment
for Europe" (Sofia, Bulgaria, October 1995),
Resolves to:
LISTING ENDANGERED NATURAL HABITATS REQUIRING
SPECIFIC CONSERVATION MEASURES
The Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and
Natural Habitats, acting under the terms of Article 14 of the convention,
Having regard to its Resolution No. 1 (1989) on the provisions relating to the conservation of
habitats,
Having regard to its Recommendation No. 14 (1989) on species habitat conservation and on the
conservation of endangered natural habitats,
Acknowledging that for Contracting Parties which are Member States of the European Union
the list of natural habitats requiring specific conservation measures corresponds to Annex I of
the Council Directive 92/43/EEC,
Resolves to identify the natural habitats listed in Annex I to this resolution as endangered
natural habitat types requiring specific conservation measures. (Selected habitats are marked
with the sign !)
Resolves to update periodically Annex I to this resolution.
ANNEX I
ENDANGERED NATURAL HABITAT TYPES
1 . COASTAL AND HALOPHYTIC COMMUNITIES
11. OCEAN AND SEAS, MARINE COMMUNITIES
11.2 Benthic communities
! 11.22 Sublittoral soft seabeds
! 11.24 Sublittoral rocky seabeds and kelp forests
! 11.25 Sublittoral organogenic concretions
! 11.26 Sublittoral cave communities
! 11.27 Soft sediment littoral communities
! 11.3 Sea-grass meadows
11.4 Brackish sea vascular vegetation
! 11.42 Marine spike-rush beds
12. SEA INLETS AND COASTAL FEATURES
! 12.7 Sea-caves
13. ESTUARIES AND TIDAL RIVERS
! 13.2 Estuaries
! 14. MUD FLATS AND SAND FLATS
15. SALTMARSHES, SALT STEPPES, SALT SCRUBS, SALT FORESTS
15.1 Annual salt pioneer swards
! 15.1132 Venetian glasswort swards
! 15.114 Iberian glasswort swards
! 15.115 Continental glasswort swards
! 15.13 Sea-pearlwort communities
! 15.14 Central Eurasian crypsoid communities
15.3 Boreo-nemoral coastal salt meadows
! 15.32 Atlantic lower schorre communities
! 15.33 Atlantic upper schorre communities
! 15.34 Atlantic brackish saltmarsh communities
! 15.4 Suboceanic inland salt meadows
! 15.5 Mediterranean salt meadows
! 15.6 Mediterraneo-Nemoral saltmarsh scrubs
! 15.7 Mediterraneo-Canarian xero-halophile scrubs
! 15.8 Mediterranean salt steppes
! 15.9 Mediterranean gypsum scrubs
! 15.A Continental salt steppes and saltmarshes
16. COASTAL SAND DUNES AND SAND BEACHES
! 16.2 Dunes
! 16.3 Humid dune-slacks
17. SHINGLE BEACHES
! 17.3 Sea kale communities
1A. COASTAL AGROSYSTEMS
! 1A.1 Machair
2 . NON-MARINE WATERS
! 21. COASTAL LAGOONS
22. STANDING FRESH WATER
22.1 Permanent ponds and lakes
! 22.11 Lime-deficient oligotrophic waterbodies
22.3 Amphibious communities
! 22.31 Euro-Siberian perennial amphibious communities
22.32 Euro-Siberian dwarf annual amphibious swards
! 22.321 Dwarf spike-rush communities
! 22.322 Dune-slack centaury swards
22.323 Dwarf toad-rush communities
! 22.3232 Small galingale swards
! 22.3233 Wet ground dwarf herb communities
22.34 Mediterraneo-Atlantic amphibious communities
! 22.341 Short Mediterranean amphibious swards
! 22.342 Tall Mediterranean amphibious swards
! 22.344 Serapias grasslands
22.35 Central Eurasian amphibious communities
! 22.351 Pannonic riverbank dwarf sedge communities
22.4 Euhydrophyte communities
22.41 Free-floating vegetation
! 22.412 Frogbit rafts
! 22.413 Water-soldier rafts
! 22.414 Bladderwort colonies
! 22.415 Salvinia covers
! 22.416 Aldrovanda communities
22.43 Rooted floating vegetation
22.431 Floating broad-leaved carpets
! 22.4316 Sacred lotus beds
22.432 Shallow-water floating communities
! 22.4321 Water crowfoot communities
! 22.4323 Water violet beds
! 22.44 Chandalier algae submerged carpets
! 22.5 Turlough and lake-bottom meadows
23. STANDING BRACKISH AND SALT WATER
! 23.1 Athalassal saline lakes
! 23.3 Salt lake islands
24. RUNNING WATER
! 24.2 River gravel banks
3 . SCRUB AND GRASSLAND
31. TEMPERATE HEATH AND SCRUB
! 31.1 European wet heaths
! 31.2 European dry heaths
! 31.3 Macaronesian heaths
31.4 Alpine and boreal heaths
31.42 Alpenrose heaths
! 31.424 Carpathian Kotschy's alpenrose heaths
! 31.425 Balkan Kotschy's alpenrose heaths
! 31.46 Bruckenthalia heaths
! 31.7 Hedgehog-heaths
31.8 Western Eurasian thickets
31.8B South-eastern deciduous thickets
! 31.8B1 Pannonic and sub-Pannonic thickets
32. SCLEROPHYLLOUS SCRUB
32.2 Thermo-Mediterranean shrub formations
! 32.22 Tree-spurge formations
! 32.24 Palmetto brush
! 32.25 Mediterranean pre-desert scrub
! 32.26 Thermo-Mediterranean broom fields (retamares)
! 32.2B Cabo de Sao Vicente brushes
! 33. PHRYGANA
34. STEPPES AND DRY CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS
34.1 Middle European pioneer swards
34.11 Middle European rock debris swards
! 34.112 Houseleek communities
! 34.2 Lowland heavy metal grasslands
! 34.3 Dense perennial grasslands and middle European steppes
! 34.5 Mediterranean xeric grasslands
! 34.9 Continental steppes
! 34.A Sand steppes
35. DRY SILICEOUS GRASSLANDS
35.1 Atlantic mat-grass swards and related communities
! 35.11 Mat-grass swards
! 35.7 Mediterraneo-montane mat-grass swards
37. HUMID GRASSLAND AND TALL HERB COMMUNITIES
37.1 Lowland tall herb communities
! 37.13 Continental tall herb communities
! 37.14 Eastern nemoral tall herb communities
! 37.2 Eutrophic humid grasslands
! 37.3 Oligotrophic humid grasslands
! 37.4 Mediterranean tall humid grasslands
37.7 Humid tall herb fringes
37.71 Watercourse veils
! 37.711 Angelica archangelica fluvial communities
! 37.712 Angelica heterocarpa fluvial communities
! 37.713 Marsh mallow screens
38. MESOPHILE GRASSLANDS
38.2 Lowland high meadows
! 38.25 Continental meadows
4 . FORESTS
41. BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FORESTS
! 41.1 Beech forests
! 41.2 Oak-hornbeam forests
! 41.4 Mixed ravine and slope forests
! 41.5 Acidophilous oak forests
! 41.6 Quercus pyrenaica forests
! 41.7 Thermophilous and supra-Mediterranean oak woods
! 41.8 Mixed thermophilous forests
! 41.H Euxino-Hyrcanian mixed deciduous forests
42. TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS FORESTS
42.1 Western Palaearctic fir forests
! 42.15 Southern Apennine silver fir forests
! 42.16 Southern Balkan silver fir forests
! 42.17 Balkano-Pontic fir forests
! 42.19 Afro-Asian fir forests
42.2 Western Palaearctic orogenous spruce forests
! 42.21 Alpine and Carpathian sub-alpine spruce forests
! 42.22 Inner range montane spruce forests
! 42.23 Hercynian subalpine spruce forests
42.24 Sub-Mediterranean Norway spruce forests
! 42.241 Rhodope spruce forest
! 42.243 Montenegrine spruce forest
! 42.244 Paeonian spruce forest
! 42.245 Balkan Range spruce forest
! 42.27 Omorika spruce forests
! 42.28 Oriental spruce forests
42.3 Alpine larch-arolla forests
! 42.31 Eastern Alpine siliceous larch and arolla forests
! 42.32 Eastern Alpine calcicolous larch and arolla forests
! 42.35 Carpathian larch and arolla forests
! 42.36 Larix polonica forests
42.4 Mountain pine forests
! 42.41 Rusty alpenrose mountain pine forests
! 42.42 Xerocline mountain pine forests
42.5 Western Palaearctic Scots pine forests
! 42.51 Caledonian forest
42.52 Middle European Scots pine forests
42.523 Western Eurasian steppe pine forest
! 42.5232 Sarmatic steppe pine forest
! 42.5233 Carpatian steppe pine frests
! 42.5234 Pannonic Scots pine steppe woods
42.54 Spring heath Scots pine forests
! 42.542 Carpatian relict calcicolous Scots pine forest
! 42.5C South-eastern European Scots pine forests
! 42.5F Ponto-Caucasian Scots pine forests
42.6 Black pine forests
! 42.61 Alpino-Apennine Pinus nigra forests
! 42.62 Western Balkan Pinus nigra forests
! 42.63 Salzmann's pine forests
! 42.64 Corsican laricio pine forests
! 42.65 Calabrian laricio pine forests
! 42.66 Banat and Pallas' pine forests
! 42.7 High oro-mediterranean pine forests
42.8 Mediterranean pine woods
42.81 Maritime pine forests
! 42.811 Charente pine-holm oak forests
! 42.812 Aquitanian pine-cork oak forests
! 42.814 Iberian maritime pine forests
! 42.82 Mesogean pine forests
! 42.83 Stone pine forests
42.84 Aleppo pine forests
! 42.841 Iberian Aleppo pine forests
! 42.842 Balearic Aleppo pine forests
! 42.843 Provenço-Ligurian Aleppo pine forests
! 42.844 Corsican Aleppo pine woods
! 42.845 Sardinian Aleppo pine woods
! 42.846 Sicilian Aleppo pine woods
42.847 Italic Aleppo pine forests
! 42.8471 Gargano Aleppo pine forests
! 42.8472 Metapontine Aleppo pine forests
! 42.8473 Umbrian Aleppo pine forests
! 42.848 Hellenic Aleppo pine forests
! 42.849 Illyrian Aleppo pine forests
! 42.84A East Mediterranean Aleppo pine forests
! 42.85 Aegean pine forests
! 42.9 Canary Island pine forests
! 42.A Western Palaearctic cypress, juniper and yew forests
! 42.B Western Palaearctic cedar forests
44. TEMPERATE RIVERINE AND SWAMP FORESTS AND BRUSH
! 44.1 Riparian willow formations
! 44.2 Boreo-alpine riparian galleries
! 44.3 Middle European stream ash-alder woods
44.4 Mixed oak-elm-ash forests of great rivers
! 44.41 Great medio-European fluvial forests
! 44.43 South-east European ash-oak-alder forests
! 44.44 Po oak-ash-alder forests
! 44.5 Southern alder and birch galleries
44.6 Mediterraneo-Turanian riverine forests
! 44.66 Ponto-Sarmatic mixed poplar riverine forest
! 44.69 Irano-Anatolian mixed riverine forests
! 44.7 Oriental plane and sweet gum woods
! 44.8 Southern riparian galleries and thickets
44.9 Alder, willow, oak, aspen swamp woods
44.91 Adler swamp woods
44.911 Meso-eutrophic swamp alder woods
! 44.9115 Eastern Carpathian alder swamp woods
! 44.914 Steppe swamp alder woods
! 44.A Birch and conifer mire woods
! 44.B Euxino-Hyrcanian wet ground forests
! 45. TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN FORESTS
5 . BOGS AND MARSHES
51. RAISED BOGS
! 51.1 Near-natural raised bogs
! 52. BLANKET BOGS
53. WATER-FRINGE VEGETATION
! 53.3 Fen-sedge beds
54. FENS, TRANSITION MIRES AND SPRINGS
54.1 Springs
! 54.12 Hard water springs
! 54.2 Rich fens
! 54.3 Arcto-alpine riverine swards
54.4 Acidic fens
54.42 Black-white-star sedge fens
! 54.426 Peri-Danubian black-white-star sedge fens
! 54.5 Transition mires
! 54.6 White beak-sedge and mud bottom communities
! 54.8 Aapa mires
! 54.9 Palsa mires
! 54.A Polygon mires
6 . INLAND ROCKS, SCREES AND SANDS
61. SCREES
61.3 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous screes
61.31 Peri-Alpine thermophilous screes
! 61.313 Paris Basin screes
! 64. INLAND SAND DUNES
! 65. CAVES
9 . WOODED GRASSLANDS AND SCRUBS
91. PARKLANDS
! 91.2 Dehesa
! 93. WOODED STEPPE
Footnote: Source: Council of Europe (1997) The EMERALD Network - a network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest for Europe. Standing Committee for the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Strasbourg, 7 January 1997, T-PVS (96) 75 revised.
1. These examples have been taken from Document T-PVS (90) 52 on "The conservation of natural habitats outside protected areas proper -- A juridical analysis", Cyrille de Klemm, 1990.
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European Centre for Nature Conservation
Last revision: 28 November 1997
Last modification: 28 November 1997